In the earlier parts (Part 1 and Part 2), we learnt about what Yagna means, the main Devata, and other related information. In a continuation of the series, we shall learn more about Yagna rituals.

Types of Yagnas and the Priests Who Officiate Them

According to the Vedic shastras, every householder is required to perform five types of daily sacrifices known as the Pancha Maha Yagnas. These are considered the great sacrifices. The first is Brahma Yagna, which means studying and teaching the scriptures. The second is Pitr Yagna, which involves offering libations to the forefathers. The third is Deva Yagna, which is a fire ritual or Agnihotra performed for the deities. The fourth is Bhuta Yagna, where animals and birds are fed and the environment is cared for. The fifth is Manushya Yagna, which means feeding and entertaining guests and visitors.

In today’s fast-paced world, it is difficult to perform all of these sacrifices regularly, but followers of Hindu Dharma should try to undertake as much as they can. Out of the many yagnas described in the Yajurveda, only a few were practiced during medieval times, and even fewer continue today. However, one ritual that has survived from ancient to modern times is the Homa or havan, performed by householders. In earlier times, it was done daily, but now it is generally limited to important occasions. The daily havan, which is part of Deva Yagna, is called Agnihotra.

To perform yagnas, it is important to know the Vedas. Therefore, householders often employ priests known as Ritviks, who are well-versed in the Granthas. These priests are given Dakshina (fees) for their services. In any yagna, there is one main priest who is assisted by other priests.

There are four main classes of priests, each with their assistants. The Adhvaryu is the chief priest and is directly responsible for conducting the sacrifice. He belongs to the Yajurveda and oversees all details of the ritual. He is the one who actually offers oblations into the fire and prompts the Hotra and Udgatri to recite their portions with prescribed mantras. Prati-prasthatra, Nestri, and Unnetra are priests assisting him.

The Hotra, meaning the invoker, belongs to the Rig Veda. He chants hymns known as shastras at the right moments as directed by the Adhvaryu. His assistants are the Maitra-Varuna, Acchavaka, and Gravastut. These priests only recite the mantras but do not offer oblations themselves.

The Udgatri is the priest who sings and belongs to the Sama Veda. He chants the Saman hymns, known as Stotras, which are considered essential for sacrifices because Devatas are invoked through them. His assistants are the Prastotra, Pratiharta, and Subrahmanya. The fourth priest is called Brahma. His role is like that of a master of ceremonies. Some believe he must know all three Vedas, while others consider him a specialist in the Atharva Veda.

While the other priests perform the rituals outwardly, the Brahma priest performs them mentally. His duty is to ensure that no mistakes are made in chanting mantras or in performing the rituals. If any errors occur, he corrects them immediately and prescribes rites of expiation (prayaschitta). His assistants are Agnidh, who tends to the sacrificial fire, Potr, who looks after errors and their rectification, and Brahmanacchamsi, who takes care of the vessels and implements used in the sacrifice.

Types of Vedic Yagnas

Vedic sacrifices are generally divided into three categories: those performed by individuals for themselves, those performed by communities, and those performed at the national level by rulers.

The first category includes Grihya sacrifices, or domestic rituals, which are simple and often involve offerings of cooked rice. There are seven main domestic rituals. The Aupasana-homa is a daily offering into the household fire. Vaisvadeva involves daily offerings of cooked rice to different deities. Parvana is a monthly offering whereas Ashaka is performed for ancestors on the eighth and ninth days (Ashtami and Navami) of the dark fortnight in the month of Magha.

Masi Sraddha is a ritual for ancestors performed every new moon and serves as the model for all other sraddhas. Sarpa-bali is performed in the month of Shravana (July–August) after sunset and continues every night until the full moon of Agrahayana (December–January). This ritual is believed to remove the curse of infertility. Finally, Ishana-bali is performed for Bhagwan Rudra on the full moon of Chaitra at a crossroads at night.

The second category includes Srauta sacrifices, which are community rituals. These are divided into Havir Yagnas and Soma Yagnas. In Havir Yagnas, offerings consist of clarified butter, boiled rice, barley, wheat, and wood from selected trees. In Soma Yagnas, the main offering is Soma juice, which is also consumed by the sponsor of the yagna (yajamana) and the priests.

There are seven Havir Yagnas. The Agni-adhana is the initial setting up of the sacrificial fire after marriage. The Agni-hotra is a daily ritual performed twice a day in which milk is offered; morning offerings are made to Surya and Prajapati, and evening offerings to Agni and Prajapati. The Darsha Purnamasa are new moon and full moon rites carried out over two days and requiring four priests.

The Agrayana is the celebration of the first harvest, where the first grains are offered into the sacred fire. The Chaturmasya are seasonal sacrifices performed every four months on full moon days. The Nirudha Pashu Bandha involves the sacrifice of an animal. The Sautramani is a special sacrifice in honor of Indra which has been described in the Yajurveda.

There are also seven Soma Yagnas, also called Kratus, where Soma juice is offered and a sacrificial post (Yupa) is erected. These include pressing and offering Soma, animal sacrifice, and chanting of Sama Veda hymns. The first is Agnistoma, which lasts five days, is performed annually in spring, and is considered the model for all other Soma Yagnas. The second is Atiragnistoma, which includes 13 Soma libations, sastras, and Stotras in honor of Indra.

The third is Uktya, which involves 15 Stotras, 15 sastras, and sacrifices to Indra and Agni. The fourth is Shodashin, a variation of Uktya with an additional sastra and Stotra during the evening libation to Indra. The fifth is Vajapeya, which lasts 17 days and includes 17 Stotras, 17 sastras, 17 animal sacrifices, 17 Soma cups, a chariot race, drummers, and salt bags all in the number 17. The sixth is Atiratra, a 24-hour ritual with 29 stotras and sastras. The seventh is Aptoryama, a variation of Atiratra with 33 stotras and sastras.

The third category is Rashtriya sacrifices, or national rituals, performed only by kings and emperors, which is why they are no longer practiced. The Ashvamedha was performed by emperors to absolve sins and establish sovereignty. The Rajasuya was undertaken by rulers to assert dominance. The Sarvamedha was performed by a sole monarch who gave away all his wealth. The Purushamedha involved symbolic human sacrifice, but there is no evidence that real human sacrifices were ever performed. The Aindra-mahabhisheka was performed to obtain special energy and extraordinary qualities. The Vajapeya, in this context, was a national ritual meant to grant the ruler strength and divinity.