The temple-mosque controversy in Bharat traces its roots to the medieval era when Islamic invaders and Mughal rulers established their dominance by encroaching upon and demolishing Hindu temples to assert cultural supremacy. Numerous mosques were constructed atop the ruins of these ancient temples, often reusing the architectural remains, leaving behind unmistakable signs of the original structures.
Today, many of these mosques, when examined closely, reveal remnants of Hindu motifs, carvings, and foundational designs, underscoring their past. This contentious legacy has led to numerous disputes across Bharat, with courts, archaeologists, and communities grappling with questions of history, faith, and justice. Such cases highlight a complex struggle between preserving historical truth and maintaining societal harmony, making the temple-mosque debate a poignant and ongoing issue in the nation.
This report compiles 26 incidents from across Bharat, shedding light on the contentious issue of religious structures allegedly built atop demolished Hindu temples. These cases, rooted in historical claims and supported by architectural or archaeological evidence, illustrate the enduring tension between faiths over shared heritage sites. From petitions seeking archaeological surveys to protests ignited by revelations of temple remnants within mosques, these disputes have sparked widespread legal and public debates. This compilation aims to address the issue of how Islamic invaders converted Hindu temples into mosques across the country, shedding light on a recurring pattern deeply embedded in Bharat’s historical and cultural narrative.
Sambhal, UP: Petition claims Shahi Jama Masjid stands on ruins of Harihar Temple
A petition filed by advocate Vishnu Shankar Jain in Sambhal, Uttar Pradesh, has reignited the debate over the origins of the 495-year-old Shahi Jama Masjid, alleged to have been built on the remains of a demolished Harihar Temple. Based on the reports from Tv9 Hindi, the petition, filed on behalf of Mahant Rishiraj Giri, claims that the Mughal emperor Babar ordered the mosque’s construction in 1529 after razing the temple, believed to be the site of Bhagwan Kalki’s future incarnation. Acting on this petition, the Chandausi Civil Judge Senior Division ordered a survey of the mosque, appointing an advocate commissioner to document its features through videography and photography.
Following the court’s orders, a survey team arrived at the mosque under heavy security late at night, with the District Magistrate (DM) and Superintendent of Police (SP) personally overseeing the operation. The area was transformed into a fortress, with extensive police deployment around the mosque and in other sensitive zones of the city to prevent unrest. Despite the heightened security, Mahant Rishiraj Giri was denied entry to the mosque, while the survey proceeded under the watchful eyes of law enforcement. Advocate Vishnu Shankar Jain emphasized that the findings from the survey would provide clarity and facilitate justice.
The controversy has sparked significant local unrest, with thousands of Islamists assembling to voice their opposition to the survey. Authorities have implemented stringent measures to maintain order, underscoring the sensitivity of the issue. The court stated that the survey, with its photographic and videographic documentation, would be pivotal in determining the validity of the claims. As tensions remain high, the outcome of the survey is expected to play a critical role in resolving this contentious dispute.
Gyanvapi Case: Tracing the journey from temple demolition
The Gyanvapi complex, adjacent to the Shri Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi, has long been a subject of historical and legal contention. Based on the reports from Amar Ujala, at the heart of the dispute lies the claim by the Hindu community that the mosque, now known as the Gyanvapi Mosque, was constructed by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1664 after demolishing the original Kashi Vishwanath Temple. This temple, believed to have been built over 2,000 years ago by Maharaja Vikramaditya, is said to house a 100-foot-high self-manifested Jyotirlinga of Adi Vishweshwar beneath its structure. Over the decades, this controversy has evolved into a significant legal and archaeological debate.
The first legal case in the Gyanvapi matter was filed in 1991, seeking permission for worship at the disputed site. However, the matter became more complex with the enactment of the Places of Worship Act in 1991, which prohibits altering the religious character of any site as it existed on August 15, 1947. While the Allahabad High Court stayed proceedings in 1993, the case resumed in 2019 following a Supreme Court ruling on the limited validity of indefinite stays. A pivotal moment came in 2021 when a Varanasi court ordered an archaeological survey of the mosque, prompting protests from the Islamists side and delaying proceedings.
In 2023, the district court approved a more detailed scientific survey of the Gyanvapi complex. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) conducted an extensive investigation, including videography and the examination of closed rooms and wells within the complex. The findings, made public in January 2024, revealed evidence of temple structures at the site. While the Hindu side celebrated this as confirmation of their claims, the Islamic community continued to dispute the findings. Meanwhile, restrictions were imposed on the mosque, allowing only a limited number of individuals to offer prayers.
The Taj Mahal and the ‘Tejo Mahalaya’ theory
The Taj Mahal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the world’s most iconic monuments, has long been embroiled in controversy over claims that it was originally a Hindu temple known as ‘Tejo Mahalaya.’ Based on the reports from Indian Express, this theory, advanced by historian P.N. Oak in his 1965 book, suggests that the mausoleum predates Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and was originally dedicated to Bhagwan Shiva. Over the years, several BJP leaders have echoed and amplified these claims, reigniting debates about the monument’s origins.
In May 2022, the Allahabad High Court dismissed a petition by BJP leader Rajneesh Singh seeking a fact-finding committee to investigate the Taj Mahal’s history and permission to open over 20 sealed rooms within the structure. The petition aimed to explore the possibility of Hindu murthis being present in these chambers. Adding to these, BJP MP Diya Kumari, a descendant of the erstwhile Jaipur royal family, asserted that the land on which the Taj Mahal stands historically belonged to her ancestors and offered to provide documents if required by the court.
Proponents of the ‘Tejo Mahalaya’ theory cite inscriptions and architectural features as evidence. For instance, a 1195 CE Bateshwar inscription reportedly references a grand Vaishnava and Shaiva temple built by Salakshana, a minister of King Paramardidev. Additionally, claims of Hindu motifs such as lotus flowers, tridents, and shapes resembling the ‘Om’ symbol within the Taj Mahal’s mosaic design are often put forward as supporting evidence.
Despite these assertions, the mainstream historical consensus remains that the Taj Mahal was constructed by Shah Jahan in the 17th century as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The controversies surrounding its origins reflect the broader complexities of history and heritage in Bharat, where ancient narratives often intersect with modern political and cultural discourses.
Historic decision on Barnawa Mound: court rules in favor of Hindus, dismisses Islamic claims
A 54-year-long legal dispute over the ancient mound in Barnawa, Baghpat, came to a conclusion as the Civil Judge Junior Division ruled in favor of the Hindu community. Based on the reports from Amar Ujala, the Islamic claim, asserting the existence of a mosque, dargah, and graveyard on the site, was dismissed. The court recognized the land as a historical site linked to the Mahabharata era, identifying it as the Lakshagriha (House of Lac) and a Shiva temple. This verdict grants Hindus ownership rights over the disputed land.
The dispute began in 1970 when Muqeem Khan filed a case claiming that the site, encompassing 36 bighas of land under survey number 3377, contained a dargah and a graveyard linked to Hazrat Sheikh Badruddin. He argued that the site had been a burial ground for centuries and was registered under the Sunni Central Waqf Board. Opposing this, the Hindu side, represented by the Lakshagriha Gurukul’s founder Brahmachari Krishnadutt Maharaj, provided evidence asserting the mound’s historical significance as a site from the Mahabharata era, containing ancient tunnels and remnants of a Shiva temple.
Both sides presented extensive evidence in court. The Hindu faction supported their claims with records from the revenue department, while the Islamic side relied on historical assertions and religious registrations. After decades of legal proceedings, the court acknowledged the Hindu claim, deeming the site an archaeological and cultural heritage location of Hindu significance, thereby rejecting the Islamists petition for ownership rights. This landmark decision underscores the cultural and historical value of the Barnawa mound.
Atala Mosque: claims of an ancient Atala Devi temple
The Atala Mosque in Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh, has become a focal point of controversy following claims that it was originally an Atala Devi temple before being transformed during the Mughal period. Based on the reports from Zee News, as per historical accounts, the Atala Devi temple was destroyed in 1364 AD by Sultan Ibrahim Naib Barbak’s brother, who constructed the Jhanjhari Masjid nearby in honor of Hazrat Ajmali. These assertions have gained traction, with archaeological surveys now underway to investigate the mosque’s origins.
The issue has escalated as Hindu devotees allege that the mosque was built over a demolished temple, citing remnants of temple structures and ongoing construction work inside the mosque as attempts to erase historical evidence. Following complaints, the Archaeological Department conducted an inspection of the site in the presence of senior officials. This investigation comes amidst heightened sensitivity over similar disputes, such as the Gyanvapi Mosque case in Varanasi, which remains a matter of legal contention.
Social media has amplified the debate, with claims that alterations to the northern gate and polishing of stones inside the mosque are efforts to eliminate evidence of its temple origins. While officials like Chief Revenue Officer Rajneesh Rai inspected the mosque, initial findings did not confirm these allegations. The Atala Mosque’s historical significance and the ongoing claims have reignited debates about India’s cultural heritage and its contested history.
Hindu litigants allowed to seek survey of Teele Wali Masjid amid historical claims
On February 9, the Lucknow District Court ruled that a lawsuit regarding the disputed Teele Wali Masjid, located on the historic Lakshman Teela along the Gomti River, is maintainable. Based on the OpIndia reports, the court permitted Hindu litigants to appeal for a survey of the mosque, rejecting the Sunni Central Waqf Board’s claim that the case was time-barred under the Places of Worship Act, 1991. The suit argues that the site, now housing the mosque, was originally the location of a temple complex, including the Sheshnagesh Tileshwar Mahadev Temple, constructed by Bhagwan Ram’s brother Lakshman.
The controversy traces its roots to a 2013 lawsuit filed by Hindu plaintiffs, who alleged that the temple was demolished during Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s reign to construct the mosque. They claimed a portion of the property belonged to Hindus and sought legal restoration. Notable advocate Harishankar Jain, also involved in similar cases like Gyanvapi and Mathura, argued that the site holds deep religious significance for Hindus and demanded a comprehensive survey to verify the claims. The next court hearing is scheduled for February 17.
The Places of Worship Act, 1991, which mandates the preservation of a site’s religious character as of August 15, 1947, was cited by Islamist litigants to dismiss the case. However, exemptions under the Act allow legal action if the status of a site was altered after the cutoff date. This case is being closely watched, as it may set a precedent for other disputed religious sites across the country.
Legal battle over Jama Masjid Shamsi in Badaun: Hindu Mahasabha demands survey
Amid ongoing legal disputes over the Gyanvapi mosque, a new controversy has surfaced regarding the Jama Masjid Shamsi in Badaun, Uttar Pradesh. A district court will hear the case on January 6, 2024, concerning claims that the mosque was constructed after demolishing a Neelkanth Mahadev Temple. On December 19, 2023, the Civil Judge (Senior Division – Fast Track) court discussed a petition from the Akhil Bharat Hindu Mahasabha seeking permission for Hindu worship at the site and requesting a scientific survey of the mosque. The Hindu side has presented historical evidence to support its case, including documents from the Gazetteer.
The dispute traces back to August 2022 when Mukesh Patel of the Hindu Mahasabha filed a petition in Badaun district court. The Hindu litigants claim that the mosque stands on land that was once home to a Neelkanth Temple, allegedly destroyed by Islamic invaders to build the mosque. A 148-year-old report by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), authored by Alexander Cunningham between 1875-1880, supports this claim, alleging that a Hindu temple, built by King Mahipal, was demolished to make way for the Jama Masjid.
During the court hearing, various stakeholders, including the Jama Masjid Arrangement Committee, Waqf Board, and the Archaeology Department, presented their arguments. The Hindu Mahasabha’s application for a scientific survey of the mosque was supported by evidence from historical records. They equate this case with other prominent temple-mosque disputes, arguing that the mosque is a symbol of the destruction of a Hindu religious site by Islamic rulers.
Tensions surrounding the dispute have been fueled by controversial statements from Maulana Tauqeer Raza, who recently declared his intention to launch a street fight over the disputed religious sites. His remarks, made during a Islamist panchayat in Delhi, reflected resistance to the potential loss of mosques and dissatisfaction with the Supreme Court’s decision on the Ram Mandir. The ongoing legal proceedings in Badaun, coupled with these inflammatory statements, have intensified the debate over religious sites in Bharat.
Transformation of Khambat Jami Masjid: from Temple to Mosque
Khambat, also known as Cambay, is a historic town located at the estuary of the Mahi River, approximately 100 kilometers from Ahmedabad and 78 kilometers from Vadodara in Gujarat. In 1324 CE, the town was invaded by Alauddin Khalji, who captured Khambat and destroyed numerous Hindu and Jain temples during his campaign. The Jami Masjid in Khambat was constructed in 1325 CE, built using the remnants of these demolished religious structures. The mosque’s design reflects early Islamic architectural styles in Gujarat, with fewer domes and minarets, signifying its transition from a temple structure.
The Jami Masjid’s architecture provides strong evidence that it was once a Hindu temple before being converted into a mosque. The entrance features a Mandap-like pavilion, commonly seen in Hindu temples, confirming the temple origins. Additionally, the staircase and seating area at the top resemble courtyard designs found in Hindu and Jain palaces, suggesting pre-Islamic construction. The intricate floral and chakra motifs on the latticed windows further support the theory that the original structure was a temple, showcasing typical Hindu temple ornamentation.
The mosque’s construction was overseen by Umar bin Ahmad al-Kazaruni, a local businessman who is credited with building the Jami Masjid. His grave is located inside the mosque, marking his contribution to this significant historical site. The mosque also features a perforated tiled screen (jaali), which serves to preserve the privacy of women in the gallery. The variety of patterns on the jaali indicates alterations made to the original design, blending Islamic and pre-Islamic architectural influences. The Jami Masjid thus stands as a testament to the region’s rich historical and cultural transformation.
Jama Masjid in Ahmedabad: A Hindu Temple turned Mosque
The Jama Masjid in Ahmedabad, originally built in 1424 CE by Sultan Ahmed Shah I, was once the BhadraKali Temple dedicated to the Hindu Devi Bhadrakali. This site holds significant historical importance as Ahmedabad’s original name was Bhadra, derived from the goddess after whom the temple was dedicated. The area was ruled by the Rajput Parmar kings of Malwa (Rajasthan) between the 9th and 14th centuries. Filigree carvings of floral motifs, lotus flowers, elephants, and serpents adorn the 100 surviving pillars, displaying a style typical of Hindu temples.
The mosque, however, raises questions about its transformation. Unlike most mosques, which feature large open spaces for communal prayers, the Jama Masjid contains numerous pillars, which would have obstructed the prayer space for namaz. These pillars, carved with stories from Hindu scriptures like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, suggest that the mosque was built upon the ruins of a Hindu temple. The intricate designs and motifs, including images of celestial dancers and bells, point to the original purpose of the structure as a Hindu place of worship.
The mosque itself was constructed using yellow sandstone and follows Indo-Saracenic architecture, blending Islamic and indigenous styles. The structure is centered around a large courtyard, surrounded by arcades decorated with giant Arabic calligraphy. The prayer hall is supported by over 260 columns, and the roof is covered by 15 domes, creating a maze of light and shadow. Despite being transformed into a mosque, the Jama Masjid still retains elements of Hindu temple architecture, such as domes resembling lotus flowers and bell motifs that reference Hindu temple bells.
Despite the mosque’s Islamic transformation, it retains many Hindu temple features, a reminder of the region’s historical and religious syncretism. The mosque’s striking architectural details, including pierced stone screens (Jalis) and the remains of two minarets that collapsed in earthquakes, further highlight the blend of cultural influences over the centuries.
Jaipur: Temple and Tomb controversy
On 11th March 2024, a dispute arose in Jaipur regarding the presence of a Islamic grave (‘mazar’) within the premises of the Laxmi Narayan temple in Bari Chaupar. The controversy questioned how a tomb could exist above the Shiva temple, considering the area has no such historical grave. The issue led to a debate in the city, as the temple’s authenticity was contested due to the presence of the ‘mazar.’
Kaman, Rajasthan: Temple-Mosque conflict
In Kaman, Rajasthan, a historical dispute traces back to the 12th century when Mohammad Gauri’s forces destroyed the Kamyakeshwar Hindu temple and built the Chaurasi Khamba Mosque between 1190 and 1210 AD. Evidence of the original Hindu structure remains, with walls still bearing Hindu cultural decorations, such as distorted human figures. The mosque’s construction on the temple’s ruins remains a point of contention.
Ajmer, Rajasthan: destruction of temples
Ajmer’s Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra mosque, built by Muhammad Ghori’s general Qutb-ud-Din-Aibak, replaced a significant Hindu and Jain temple, the Saraswati Kanthabharan Mahavidyalay. Ghori ordered the destruction of the temples in the city and the construction of a mosque in just 60 hours. The original Sanskrit college was dedicated to Goddess Saraswati, and its destruction continues to stir historical debates.
Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh: Bijamandal Mosque
In Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, the Bijamandal Mosque was constructed after demolishing the Chika Devi Temple, built by the Paramara kings. The temple was dedicated to the Devi Charchika, and after its destruction, the mosque was built using the temple’s material. A Sanskrit inscription on a pillar indicates the original temple’s dedication to the goddess of victory, ‘Vijaya.’
Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh: Shiva Temple and Mosque
The Bina Neev Ka Masjid in Ujjain was built in the 17th century after the Mughal rulers demolished a Shiva temple constructed by Raja Bhoj in 1026. Evidence of the original temple’s Hindu imagery, including elephant and horse figures, and a shivling inside the mosque, suggests the mosque was built on the ruins of a Hindu religious site.
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh: Jama Masjid
The Jama Masjid in Bhopal was built in 1857 by Sultan Jahan Begum after demolishing an existing Hindu temple. Begum’s book Hayate Qudsi mentions that the mosque replaced an old Hindu temple. The mosque’s architecture, including its large prayer hall and intricate design, reflects a blend of Islamic and local styles.
Raisen, Madhya Pradesh: Someshwar Mandir and Mosque
The Raisen Mosque in Madhya Pradesh was built in 1543 after Islamist invaders defeated a Hindu empire and demolished the Someshwar temple. The temple’s shivling was removed, and a mosque was constructed at its place. The temple remains locked, only being opened during Shivaratri, which fuels ongoing debates about the mosque’s true origins.
Jalgaon, Maharashtra: Jumma Mosque and Temple
In Jalgaon, Maharashtra, the local Hindu organization in Erandol has raised concerns about the Jumma Masjid, claiming it resembles an old Hindu temple. The Bombay High Court is scheduled to hear a petition filed by the mosque trust, seeking clarification about the site’s original purpose. The temple-mosque controversy continues to unfold.
Nashik, Maharashtra: Trimbakeshwar Temple and Dargah
In Nashik, Maharashtra, there is a claim that a Hindu temple exists under the Dargah of Baba Gorakhnath. The Dargah, an Islamic shrine, is believed to be built on a cave of the Nath sect. Evidence includes Hindu vigrahas and symbols of Bhagwan Ganesha found in the vicinity. The claim of a Hindu temple beneath the Dargah continues to be debated.
Hyderabad, Telangana: Deval Masjid
The Deval Masjid in Hyderabad was originally the Indranarayana Swamy Temple, built in the 10th century CE. The temple was destroyed by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, who converted it into a mosque, with a shivalinga still present at its base. The mosque is also known locally as the Temple of One Hundred Pillars, indicating its original Hindu design.
Kolkata, West Bengal: Adina Mosque
In Kolkata, the Adina Mosque was constructed by Sikandar Shah between 1358-1390 AD, replacing a grand Hindu temple. The mosque’s main gallery displays carvings and moulded images of the Hindu Bhagwan Vishnu. The mosque’s construction over a Hindu religious site has led to ongoing discussions about its true origins.
Hooghly, West Bengal: Shrinkhala Devi Temple and Mosque
In Hooghly, West Bengal, the Padua Mosque & Minar was built in 1477 AD after the Shrinkhala Devi Temple, dedicated to Devi Sati, was destroyed by Shamsuddin Yusuf Shah. The temple was considered one of the Shakti Peethas in Bharat, and its destruction has sparked debates about the mosque’s historical and religious significance.
Delhi: Qawwat al-Islam Mosque
In Delhi, the Qawwat al-Islam mosque was built in 1192 by Qutubuddin Aibak after demolishing 27 Hindu and Jain temples. The mosque is constructed using materials from the destroyed temples, with Hindu images on some of the stones, alongside Arabic inscriptions. The Qutub Minar, part of the complex, also reflects the syncretism of Hindu and Islamic culture.
Mahendragarh, Haryana: Pir Turk Dargah
The Pir Turk Dargah in Narnaul, Haryana, is believed to have replaced a Hindu temple dedicated to an unknown deity. Built in 1272 during the reign of Giyasuddin Balban, the Dargah shows remnants of the original temple, including inverted temple pillars and carvings from the Hindu era. Excavations are expected to uncover more Hindu artifacts.
Sasaram, Bihar: Maa Tarachandi Temple and Mosque
In Sasaram, Bihar, a mosque built by Aurangzeb in 1679 is located in the complex of the Maa Tarachandi temple, a significant Hindu religious site. Historians argue that no prayers were ever offered at the mosque, as it was built over a revered Hindu temple, and the mosque’s location within the temple complex discouraged Islamist worshippers.
The rise of Islamism and its historical expansion has significantly impacted the cultural and religious fabric of the Bharatiya subcontinent. From the medieval period onward, invasions and forced conversions resulted in the destruction of numerous Hindu temples, sacred sites, and places of worship, replaced by mosques and other Islamic structures. These actions were not just physical invasions but also aimed at erasing the cultural identity of Hindus.
The repeated desecration of temples, alongside the forced conversion of Hindus to Islam, left lasting scars on the community. If these patterns of aggression continue unchecked, it threatens the preservation of Hindu heritage and religious practices. The future may witness further tensions and struggles, as the fight for religious freedom and cultural preservation intensifies. It is crucial to remember the importance of unity, awareness, and resilience in safeguarding the rich traditions of Hindu Dharma, ensuring that history does not repeat itself in ways that could erode the core values and sanctity of these sacred spaces.
