The Konark or Konarak Sun temple is dedicated to the Hindu sun god Surya, and, conceived as a giant stone chariot with 12 wheels, it is the most famous of the few sun temples built in India. It is located about 35 km northeast of the city of Puri on the coastline in the state of Odisha (earlier Orissa). The word ‘Konark’ is a combination of two Sanskrit words kona (corner or angle) and arka (the sun). It thus implies that the main deity was the sun god, and the temple was built in an angular format. Konark, also referred to in Indian texts by the name Kainapara, was a significant trading port by the early centuries of the common era. Konark town and the temple are associated with the legend of Samba, the son of the Hindu deity Krishna, who was cured of leprosy by the sun god’s blessings.
History
It was built c. 1250 CE by King Narasimhadeva I (r. 1238-1264 CE) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty (8th century CE – 15th century CE). It is one of the few Hindu temples whose planning and construction records written in Sanskrit in the Odia script have been preserved in the form of palm leaf manuscripts that were discovered in the villages (Rupasa Gada, Bayalisbati) in the 1960s and subsequently translated. The temple construction was overseen by Shiva Samantaraya Mahapatra (the royal official traditionally credited with supervising construction of the Konark Sun Temple). It was built near an old Surya temple. The sculpture in the older temple’s sanctum was re-consecrated and incorporated into the newer larger temple. This chronology of temple site’s evolution is supported by many copper plate inscriptions of the era in which the Konark temple is referred to as the “great cottage”.
Once over 200 feet (61 m) high, much of the temple is now in ruins. The large shikara tower over the sanctuary at one time was much higher than the mandapa that remains. The cause of the destruction of the Konark temple is unclear and still remains a source of controversy. The Kenduli copper plate inscription of 1384 CE from the reign of Narasimha IV (The Kenduli Copper Plate Grant is a Sanskrit inscription engraved on copper plates, issued in 1384 CE during the reign of King Narasimha Deva IV) indicates that the temple was not only completed but was an active site of worship. Another inscription states that various deities in the temple were consecrated, also suggesting that construction of the temple had been completed. The Akbar-era text Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl dated to the 16th century, mentions the Konark temple, describing it as a prosperous site with a temple that made visitors “astonished at its sight”, with no mention of ruins. Kalapahad, a Muslim convert general of the 16th century, is believed to have attacked this temple around 1568. (Texts from the 19th century do mention ruins, which means the temple was damaged either intentionally or through natural causes sometime between 1556 and 1800 CE.) It is believed that two hundred years later, during the reign of the Marathas in Odisha in the 18th century, a Maratha holy man found the temple abandoned and covered in mud and grass. The pillar at Konark made of monolithic chlorite, is 33 feet 8 inches (10.26 m) tall and is dedicated to Aruna, the charioteer of the Sun god. In the last quarter of the 18th century Marathas relocated the temple’s Aruna stambha to the Lion’s Gate entrance of the Jagannath Temple in Puri. Lacking structural support, the last part of the Konark main temple still standing, a small broken curved section, collapsed in 1848. In 1894 thirteen sculptures were moved to the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Local Hindu population objected to further damage and removal of temple ruins. In 1903, when a major excavation was attempted nearby, the then-Lieutenant governor of Bengal, J. A. Bourdillon, ordered the temple to be sealed and filled with sand to prevent the collapse of the Jagamohana. The Mukhasala and Nata Mandir were repaired by 1905. In 1906 Casuarina and tamanu trees were planted facing the sea to provide a buffer against sand-laden winds. In 1909 the Mayadevi temple was discovered while removing sand and debris. The temple in its present state was declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site in 1984 CE.
This temple was called the “Black Pagoda” in European sailor accounts as early as 1676 since it looked like a great tiered tower which appeared black. Similarly, the Jagannath Temple in Puri was called the “White Pagoda”. Both temples served as important landmarks for sailors in the Bay of Bengal.
A collection of fallen sculptures can be viewed at the Konark Archaeological Museum, which is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India. The fallen upper portion of the temple is believed to have been studded with many inscriptions.
Architecture
The main temple at Konark, locally called the deul (in Oriya deul refers to the sanctum tower) of a temple, no longer exists. It was surrounded by subsidiary shrines containing niches depicting Hindu deities, particularly Surya in many of his aspects. The deul was built on a high terraceand the temple was originally a complex consisting of the main sanctuary, called the rekha deul, or bada deul (lit. big sanctum). In front of it was the bhadra deul (lit. small sanctum), or jagamohana (lit. assembly hall of the people, called a mandapa in other parts of India.). The attached platform was called the pida deul, which consisted of a square mandapa with a pyramidal roof. The surviving structure has three tiers of six pidas each. What remains of the temple complex has the appearance of a 100-foot (30 m) high chariot with immense wheels and horses, all carved from stone. The sun temple was made from three types of stone. Chlorite was used for the door lintel and frames as well as some sculptures. Laterite was used for the core of the platform and staircases near the foundation. Khondalite was used for other parts of the temple. None of these stones are formed naturally nearby, and the architects and artisans must have procured and moved these stones from distant sources, probably using the rivers and water channels near the site.
The Konarak temple takes the form of a colossal chariot with 24 lavishly-ornamented wheels, each wheel with a diameter of 9 feet, 9 inches, with 8 spokes that are pulled by a set of seven horses. The seven horses are named after the seven meters of Sanskrit prosody: Gayatri, Brihati, Ushnih, Jagati, Trishtubh, Anushtubh, and Pankti. While these 12 pair of wheels Represent the 12 months of the Hindu calendar, each month is again paired into two cycles (Shulka Paksha and Krishna Paksha). The temple follows the Kalinga or Orissa style of architecture, which is a subset of the nagara style of Hindu temple architecture. The nagara was among the three styles of Hindu temple architecture in India and prevailed in northern India, while Dravida style was predominant in South and Vesara style popularly found in Deccan region. The features of the ground plan and the temple elevation differentiate these three styles of temple architecture from one another. Since King Anantavarman’s domains included many areas in northern India as well, the nagara style prevalent there decisively impacted the architectural plans of the temples that were about to be built in Odisha by the king. The structures and elements that have survived at Konark are famed for their intricate artwork, iconography, and themes, including erotic kama and mithuna scenes.
The Konark Sun Temple complex has ruins of many subsidiary shrines and monuments around the main temple. Some of these include:
Mayadevi Temple – Located west- been dated to the late 11th century, earlier than the main temple. It consists of a sanctuary, a mandapa and, before it, an open platform. It was discovered during excavations carried out between 1900 and 1910. This temple also has numerous carvings and a square mandapa which is resting upon a sapta-ratha. The sanctum of this temple features a Nataraja. Other deities in the interior include a damaged Surya holding a lotus, along with Agni, Varuna, Vishnu, and Vayu.
Vaishnava Temple – Located southwest of the Mayadevi Temple, it was discovered during excavations in 1956. This is a small temple with sculptures of Balarama, Varaha, and Vamana–Trivikrama in its sanctum, marking it as a Vaishnavite temple. The sanctum’s primary idol and other images from some niches in the temple are missing. Chaitanya, the early 16th-century scholar and founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, visited the Konark temple and prayed on its premises.
Kitchen – This monument is found south of the bhoga mandapa (feeding hall). It, too, was discovered in excavations in the 1950s. It includes means to bring water, tanks to store water, drains, a cooking floor, pits in the floor probably for pounding spices or grains, and several triple ovens for cooking.
Well 1 – This monument is located north of the kitchen, towards its eastern flank, was probably built to supply water to the community kitchen and bhoga mandapa.
Well 2 – This monument and associated structures are in the front of the northern staircase of the main temple, with foot rests, a washing platform, and a wash water drain system.
The main temple and the jagamohana porch consist of four main zones: the platform, the wall, the trunk, and the crowning head called a mastaka. The first three are square while the mastaka is circular. The main temple and the jagamohana differ in size, decorative themes, and design. The main temple’s trunk, called the gandhi in medieval Hindu architecture texts, that was ruined long ago.
The sanctum of the main temple is now without a roof and most of the original parts. On the east side of the main temple is the Nata mandira (lit. dance temple). It stands on a high, intricately carved platform. According to historical texts, there was an Aruna stambha (lit. Aruna’s pillar) between the main temple and the Nata mandira, which was moved to the Jagannath Temple at Puri in the last quarter of the 18th century as mentioned earlier.
The original temple had a main sanctum sanctorum (vimana), which is estimated to have been 229 feet (70 m) tall. The main vimana fell in 1837. The main mandapa audience hall (jagamohana), which is about 128 feet (39 m) tall is the principal structure in the surviving ruins. Among the structures that have survived to the current day are the dance hall (Nata mandira) and the dining hall (Bhoga mandapa). The temple walls are richly ornamented with relief sculptures; many carved with minute details comparable to the craftsmanship of fine jewellery.
The terraces contain stone statues of male and female musicians holding various musical instruments including the vina, mardala (barrel-shaped drum, a percussion instrument), gini (a metallic percussion instrument). Other major works of art include sculptures of Hindu deities, apsaras and images from the daily life and culture of the people, various animals, aquatic creatures, birds, and friezes narrating the Hindu texts. The upana (moulding) layer at the bottom of the platform contains friezes of elephants, marching soldiers, musicians, and images depicting the life of the people, including hunting scenes, domesticated animals, people carrying supplies on their head or with the help of a bullock cart, travellers preparing a meal along the roadside, and festive processions.
The entire sculpture of Sun God stands on a chlorite pedestal and is made from a single piece. It is 3.38 metres high, 1.8 metres wide and 71 cm thick. He holds lotus stalks in both his hands and is surrounded by several attendant figures, including celestial dancers and the king offering obeisance along with his family priest. The temple is oriented towards the east so that the first rays of the sunrise strike the main entrance. The wheels of the temple are sundials, which can be used to calculate time accurately to a minute. The plan of the Sun Temple consists of three sections in a row: a main shrine is connected to an entrance and prayer hall; in front of this, and separate from it, is a pillared dance hall. Decorating the exterior of the joined shrine and entrance hall are 12 pairs of large wheels—together, the two buildings represent the chariot of Surya. The statues of seven galloping horses used to draw the chariot, but now only one horse remains well preserved. The horses were arranged with four on one side and three on the other, so the chariot would travel in circles. Between the wheels, two friezes with amorous couples, dancing girls, and beautiful maidens decorate the lower reliefs of the temple.
Many statues and sculptures were removed to other temples and museums throughout the 19th century and some were relocated to museums in Europe.
Erotism
The Konark temple is also known for its erotic sculptures of maithunas. These show couples in various stages of courtship and intimacy. The erotic sculptures are found on the temple’s Shikhara, and these illustrate all the bandhas (mudra forms) described in the Kamasutra.
The upper levels and terrace of the Konark Sun temple contain larger and more significant works of art than the lower level. These include images of musicians and historical narratives as well as sculptures of Hindu deities, including Durga in her Mahishasuramardini aspect killing the buffalo demon Mahishasur (Shaktism), Vishnu in his Jagannatha form (Vaishnavism), and Shiva as a (largely damaged) linga (Shaivism). The medallions of the chariot wheels of the Surya temple, as well as the artwork of the jagamohana, show Vishnu, Shiva, Gajalakshmi, Parvati, Krishna, Narasimha, and other divinities. Also found on the jagamohana are sculptures of Vedic deities such as Indra, Agni, Kubera, Varuna, and Âdityas.
Cultural significance
Religious practices are intertwined with cultural expression in Odisha. Konark occupies an important space in it as part of The Golden Triangle (Jagannath Temple, Puri, Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar , and Konark temple) which represents the pinnacle of Odia masonry and temple architecture.
The Warrior and Horse statue found in the Konark temple grounds forms the basis of the state emblem of Odisha. The iconic wheels of the temple is the inspiration behind the logo of the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Berhampur.
The Konark Dance Festival, held annually from December 1st to 5th (organised by Odisha Tourism Development Corporation and Odissi Research Centre), transforms the temple grounds into a mesmerising open-air theatre. Against the backdrop of weathered stone, Indian classical dancers bring millennia-old traditions to life. For a more spiritual experience, the annual Chandrabagha Mela in January- February (held at Chandrabhaga Beach, about 3 KMs from Konark Temple) offers a glimpse into the traditional devotional practices associated with the site. Konark Sun Temple is depicted on the reverse side of the Indian currency note of 10 rupees to signify its importance to Indian cultural heritage.
Discovery & Restoration
James Fergusson (1808-1836 CE), the noted Scottish historian of British India who played a key role in rediscovering ancient Indian antiquities and architectural sites, visited Konarak in 1837 CE and prepared a drawing. He estimated the height of the portion still standing as being between 42.67 and 45.72 metres. By 1868 CE, the site had been reduced to a mass of stones covered by trees here and there. Conservation activities picked up speed from 1900 CE onwards after Lt. Governor John Woodburn ‘initiated the launch of a well-planned campaign to save the temple at any cost by adopting suitable measures. Since 1939, CE the Archaeological Survey of India has been conserving and maintaining the site.
Thousands of pilgrims gather to take a purifying dip in the sea (Chandrabhaga Beach) nearby and offer prayers to the Sun God, creating a tableau of faith and tradition. Nature enthusiasts will find solace in the nearby Balukhand-Konark Wildlife Sanctuary, home to spotted deer, jackals, and various birdlife amidst its casuarina plantations. No wonder, the Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore wrote on Konark temple, “Here the language of stone surpasses the language of human.”
How to reach?
Nearest railway station to Konark temple is Puri (around 35 KMs). Nearest airport is Biju Patnaik International Airport, Bhubaneshwar (around 65 KMs). One can also travel from Puri to Konark by road on the beautiful marine drive road which is adorned with casuarinas that offers panoramic view. Hindus revere the Sun as the directly perceptible deity, and one must visit the Konark Sun Temple to truly experience its extraordinary artistic splendour and timeless aura.
Reference:
- https://odishatourism.gov.in/content/tourism/en/discover/attractions/temples-monuments/konark.html.
- https://www.konarksuntemple.org/.
- https://www.worldhistor
- y.org/Konarak_Sun_Temple/.
